Genetic modification

CHRIS LEAVER has spent years talking about his work. He speaks to MPs and the media, visits schools, and attends debates, putting into practice his avowed belief that scientists who work in controversial areas must engage with other sections of society. “You need to bring the public along with you,” he says. “The next generation of scientists has to accept this challenge.”

Leaver recently retired as professor of plant sciences at the University of Oxford and is convinced that in GM we have the tools to deal with several of the challenges that face humanity. “To meet food demand for the world’s projected population in 2050, in terms of land and water, we would need about three planets,” he says.

The standard of debate over GM has improved since the late 90s, when Leaver was heckled by 900 Greenpeace activists and labelled an “idiot savant” by a columnist in The Guardian. Over time he has learned how to communicate with the public. “When you talk to people in smaller groups, they tend to be fascinated by the subject.”

Julian Ma at St George’s Hospital Medical School in London is working in a particularly sensitive area of GM. He produces “pharma-crops” – plants that are engineered to produce drugs and vaccines. He is motivated by what he terms the “unbeatable argument” that they could improve global health. To be successful you have to understand and overcome the objections of green groups, says Ma. “Security of the food chain is an absolute must – you don’t want drugs in your cornflakes.”

“Security is a must. You don’t want drugs in your cornflakes”

Crops are already planted for non-food purposes, Ma points out, citing rapeseed, which is grown for use in oil, plastics and paints. “Farmers have various controls: they plant different crops at specified distances and at different times. I would like to do the same thing for pharma-crops.”

Ma has spent a lot of time engaging with the public in debates, and like Leaver emphasises the need to tell the public about your work. “I have learned the importance of engagement. If I were working in a less controversial area, I would still do the same things.”

One of the pluses of working in GM research is a bumper crop of transferable skills. “A sound training in genetics, genomics and molecular biology is important for a range of careers. Opportunities are not necessarily dependent on the use of GM approaches to solve problems,” says Howard Davies, director of science co-ordination at the Scottish Crop Research Institute.

“Communication and media training, intellectual property and regulatory affairs – students learn about all these areas,” Ma adds. “It wasn’t like this 10 years ago. In that way the controversy has done us a favour.”

Stem cell research

“I WASN’T prepared for the media onslaught,” says Stephen Minger, director of stem cell biology at King’s College London. Minger has applications pending for a licence to create animal-human hybrid embryos, and has been speaking to MPs, the media and even Roman Catholic priests, fielding questions on the government’s embryology bill.

It’s not always easy to make your case in the face of the headline-friendly language of opponents, says Minger, who in a recent TV debate found himself accused of being a “technological cannibal, consuming the leftovers of IVF”.

As a researcher in a morally loaded area, you are forced to think about these issues, Minger observes. It is also essential to consider your motivations. “I’m not doing it because I hope to get rich,” he says. “I hope the work will have some benefit to society.”

Diversification is key to maintaining a research team in an environment where support and funding are scarce, Minger says. “We’ve tried not to let our stem cell research dominate. It’s not a main thrust of the group, but we hope it will be one day.”

He has at times had to fight for this research. “The government said they would ban it when they renewed the embryology act, so we had to put a war cabinet together: the Royal Society, the Wellcome Trust, the Medical Research Council and other bodies.” The result was a government U-turn and a licence for the work. These organisations – along with European Union bodies – are also a valuable source of funding for researchers, often covering areas where research councils have scaled back.

Funding may be easier to come by outside of the UK. However, Sébastien Duprat, training and outreach manager at ESTOOLS, a Europe-wide consortium of embryonic stem cell researchers, advises scientists to be careful where they choose to do their research. Some countries can be “problematic”, he warns. In Italy, pressures from the Vatican have threatened excommunication for those involved in stem cell research.

In Germany, post-war debate concerning the “right to live” makes the subject a particularly sensitive one. For UK researchers, the outlook is less fraught. “There’s a more balanced debate in the UK,” says Duprat. “There is a lot of public engagement and opinions are respected.”

Cloning

“WHEN I started as a molecular biologist in the late 80s, people would ask me about the moral significance of cloning. I used to say this was a question for 100 years from now,” says Josh Brickman at the Institute for Stem Cell Research in Edinburgh.

Then science took an unexpected path: “I remember being in a bar with a colleague,” says Brickman. “We had just reviewed the Dolly paper [detailing the cloning of Dolly the sheep] and were in shock. We had quickly made the transition from ‘no way in a million years’ to ‘we can do this on a practical level’.”

Do sudden breakthroughs persuade researchers to stretch their moral limits? Brickman says no, but advises scientists to choose research groups with a strong ethical framework. Cloning has huge potential to help treat diabetes, as well as genetic diseases such as muscular dystrophy and Parkinson’s, says Brickman, and he sees the UK as a good place to do this work. “It’s a fantastic community to work in. It’s refreshing to be in a country where religion doesn’t dictate policy.”

Brickman is originally from the US, where he says the Bush administration has had a paralysing influence on cloning and stem cell research. “It has been too morally explosive an issue to regulate. So you end up with academia, which is regulated but has no public funding, and the private sector which has money but is not subject to public scrutiny.” In the UK the public and private sectors move forward at the same time, he says.

Media attention has benefited Brickman by providing many good candidates for PhDs and postdocs, but it poses difficulties too. “We are interested in scientists with a real interest in biology and stem cell research, not those who have just been swayed by the hype.”

Alongside the issues surrounding human embryonic cloning sits the debate over cloning animals for food. The recent ruling by the US Food and Drug Administration declaring meat and milk from cloned animals fit to eat has reignited controversy on the issue, while in the UK a cloned cow has been sold at auction for breeding for the first time. It’s this type of headline-forming news which is likely to put biotechnology researchers in the spotlight for some time to come. This shouldn’t put anyone off making a career in this area, Brickman says. “We need good scientists to grapple with the moral issues, as it is they who are most likely to make the most profound impact.”

Careers – Find out how to make the most of your career in our comprehensive special report.

GM Organisms – Is GM the future? Learn more in our continually updated special report.

Stem Cells – Learn more about the promise and the controversy in our cutting edge special report .

Shared interests are the building blocks of your relationship

“Choosing a supervisor is tricky because you don’t know much about them until you start working with them,” says Lewis Wolpert, professor of biology at University College London. “Instead, start by choosing a problem that interests you – it’s easier to do and just as important.”

“It might sound obvious,” says Jim Hough, director of the Institute for Gravitational Research at the University of Glasgow, “but it’s amazing how many students don’t do that.”

John Cowpe, a second-year PhD student from the University of Salford, agrees. “To get the most from your supervisor, you have to be interested in what they do. My supervisor will leap at any chance to discuss – often at great length – a topic he’s passionate about. You learn just as much from anecdotal chatting as you do from your own research.”

A good supervisor says all the right things

Your supervisor will be a mentor, friend, confidante, adviser and also a voice of reason, so make sure it’s a voice you’ll want to hear. “Over the course of three years, it’s crucial to have someone who can encourage you when your experiments fall flat, challenge you when you become cocky and help steer you towards successfully submitting your thesis,” says broadcaster and writer Simon Singh, who did a PhD in particle physics at the University of Cambridge.

“It’s crucial to have someone who can challenge you when you become cocky”

Choose a supervisor who excites you

It is essential to find a supervisor you believe in and whose work you find exciting, says Susan Greenfield, professor of physiology at the University of Oxford. “żěèśĚĘÓĆľs are made up of all types of people – thinkers, dreamers, practical workers – all of whom are important, but you need to find someone who thinks in the same way that you do.”

You’ll see many of your peers going to the City and into industry, earning much higher salaries than you, and who also seem to have more time off, says Greenfield, “so it’s vital that you have a real passion and belief in your work”.

Supervisors can be stereotyped – pick your favourite

So says David Hand, professor of mathematics at Imperial College London. “At one extreme, there are the most eminent senior academics with considerable experience. Their reputation and influence can rub off and they can introduce you to other big names, but they may not be able to give you as much of their time as is desirable.”

At the other extreme is the junior academic, says Hand. While they have less experience, they have more time to spend on your project. This is an important factor to consider, says Vivienne Raper, a recent PhD graduate from the University of Bristol. “If you’re not at your most motivated, an absent or distant PhD supervisor can be a recipe for months of procrastination.”

Another option is to choose a supervisor close to retirement, suggests second-year PhD student Stefan Rohrmoser from the University of Southampton. “They are more likely to have a relaxed attitude, as they’ve seen it all before. Their students won’t be running blindfolded into an overly ambitious project. They will be given interesting work which their supervisor knows is going to provide enough results to comfortably finish a PhD.”

Personal chemistry is important

Once you’ve found a supervisor you’d like to work with, go and meet them, says Greenfield. “The real issue is to see whether the chemistry is right,” she says. “Think about whether your prospective supervisor seems like the sort of person who will be there when you need them.”

While you’re visiting potential supervisors, try to meet some of their current students as well as other colleagues in their group. “I always tell PhD candidates to talk to my students,” says Carolyn Stephens, senior lecturer in international environmental health at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. “They know things about me that I don’t know myself.”

You can get a real feel for the mood of a department by chatting to current PhD students, agrees Singh. “Buy them a coffee and a doughnut, and ask them if they enjoy being part of the research group.”

See a variety of people

If you have the opportunity to sample different supervisors at the beginning of your PhD, definitely take it, says Gerd Gigerenzer, director of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin. “That gives you more time to work out who you would work best with.”

Research councils are also starting to move towards multidisciplinary projects, which means you might get to work with more than one team, says Stephens. “There’s a lot of encouragement to cross boundaries between disciplines. If this is the case, make sure your supervisor is willing to put you in touch with scientists from other subjects.”

You will also find help from those closer to home. “Remember that on a day-to-day basis you will spend more time working with students and postdocs than your supervisor,” says Hough. “So it’s important that there’s a good social environment. Usually that means a reasonable-sized group.” This was important for Singh: “Being surrounded by postdocs, lecturers and other postgraduates willing to advise and guide me was invaluable.”

Keep channels of communication free from static

If you feel like your supervisor is talking in a foreign language, don’t panic. “Often in one-to-one meetings, you will understand what your supervisor says at a basic level, but will only have a good grasp of the implications and ramifications towards the end of your PhD,” says Hand. “Don’t be afraid to ask questions if you don’t understand,” agrees Gigerenzer. “Openness is key.”

Prepare to take the reins

“A PhD is part apprenticeship and part equal partner. Ideally, the balance between these two modes shifts to the latter as time goes on,” says John Krebs, professor of zoology at the University of Oxford. “It’s a bit like learning to ride a bike,” says Greenfield. “You start off on the back of your mother’s bike. Then you get your own tricycle, then a two-wheeled bike with stabilisers. Finally your stabilisers are removed.”

Science shouldn’t be too safe; you shouldn’t be too protected, she says. “Being trained to cope with failure is one of the most important parts of your PhD. If you don’t know failure, then you’re not being stretched enough.” That said, you will reach the point where you know more than your supervisor about a specific aspects of your research. “This should certainly be your goal,” says Gigerenzer.

Be unique

It is vital that you don’t compare yourself with other PhD students, says Jim Al-Khalili, professor of physics at the University of Surrey. “Students can get frustrated if they feel they are not making progress at the same rate as others, but your progress depends on so many factors. Some students publish many papers, others only a few. Some will quickly churn out results while many don’t feel ready to carry out original research.” This should not concern you, says Al-Khalili. “There is no standard formula for how research should be done.”

Carlos Alegria can appreciate this fact better than most, having completed not one but two PhDs, first in physics and then in finance. “Each was unique and you have to accept that there isn’t one single rule that everybody can follow,” he says. Stephens agrees: “A PhD is an incredibly personal journey. Be prepared for it to raise all sorts of personal issues about whether you’re up to it.”

Give as much as you take

The later stages of a PhD are when students contribute the most to their field of research, but you should try to make yourself indispensable as early as possible in the process, says Gigerenzer. You will acquire specific skills very quickly. These can prove useful if you find yourself able to help out when your supervisor is under pressure, he says. “It’s like children who find they can do something better than their parents – wonderful.”

You also have a unique perspective as a fresh face, says Gigerenzer. “A newcomer has a better chance of seeing holes in an idea than those who have been immersed in a project for a long time. Any discipline can be improved, and an outsider’s perspective can help.”

It’s a love-hate thing

“People often end up hating their supervisor at some point,” says Stephens. “I usually expect my students to hate me somewhere in the middle of their PhD.”

“I usually expect my students to hate me somewhere near the middle of their PhD”

“At the beginning of your relationship you don’t know each other well, so things are usually cordial,” he explains. “Then you move towards respecting your supervisor, then to not respecting them at all. Finally you break away and begin critiquing your supervisor and their work.”

A fluid relationship means that if you don’t click with each other from the start, it’s not a disaster. But if your relationship really isn’t working, universities usually have ways to rearrange supervisors, says Stephens. “Quite often it’s a mutual decision – the student’s research interest might change. It’s not looked upon as a bad thing.”

Get more out of your relationship than a good degree

“Immediately after my first PhD, I thought the most important thing I took from my supervisor was technical knowledge,” says Alegria. “Now it is clear to me that I learned much more. Even rejected papers, negative feedback and personal problems can all add up to an invaluable lesson in life.”

“My graduate adviser became a close friend immediately and we’ve stayed close for 30 years now,” says Steven Pinker, professor of psychology at Harvard University. “Several of my former students also remain close friends. Two of them were the official witnesses at my wedding.”

Careers – Find out how to make the most of your career in our comprehensive special report.

“£153,172 – Average house price in the north-west”

As a result, in 1898 a local shipowner set up the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. It was the first of its kind in the world, and dispatched scientists as far as central Africa and the Amazon to research these mysterious diseases. One of its early successes came just four years later when a scientist at the school, Ronald Ross, became the first Briton to win a Nobel prize after he discovered that mosquitoes carry malaria. Today, the north-west’s shipping industry has faded away, but the school retains a global reputation as a leader in research on tropical and infectious diseases, from AIDS to SARS.

“£322,104 – Average house price in London”

It is not the only world-beating research centre in the north-west. A corridor of exciting science has formed between Liverpool and Manchester, running roughly parallel to the river Mersey (see Map). żěèśĚĘÓĆľs are discovering just how much the region can boost their careers and standard of living.

The golden triangle joining London, Oxford and Cambridge is often considered the hub of UK academic science. Many in the north-west would beg to differ – pointing, for example, to the University of Manchester. It aims to become one of the world’s top 25 universities by 2015, boosted by the merger in 2004 of the city’s two major universities to create a mega-institution with more than 5000 academic and research staff. “It provided the opportunity for us to raise our game and ambitions,” says Nancy Rothwell, its vice-president for research. “Together with fantastic support from the city and the region plus the vibrancy of Manchester, this makes it a great place to work.”

Daresbury Laboratory, near Warrington, is another case in point. It was formed in 1962 to provide large-scale scientific facilities to researchers across the north, and the tower that was once home to the world’s largest van de Graaff machine dominates the site. The buildings at its base still house several laboratories.

The past few years have seen big changes on the campus, says general manager John Leake. The government singled out Daresbury, along with its sister campus at Harwell in Oxfordshire, for a major injection of cash. The site is now home to around 40 hi-tech start-up businesses, an IBM research set-up and a recently completed supercomputer, Blue Gene. “We have a very interesting mix of capabilities,” says Leake. “There’s nothing really like it in the UK and you would struggle to find it internationally, too.”

Daresbury also hopes to build a new form of particle accelerator called a “fourth-generation light source”. The facility would allow researchers to accelerate electrons to close to the speed of light, and use the light this process generates to probe the inner workings of cells, and even to image individual atoms. Daresbury may still only be at the bidding stage, but it is already building a prototype.

Big on pharma

The north-west can also hold its own when it comes to high-tech industry, another rich source of opportunities for scientists. Around 43,000 highly skilled people work in the chemical industry, more than 21,000 people work in aerospace, and 40,000 in the nuclear sector. One of the region’s major selling points is the strong pharmaceuticals presence, exemplified by AstraZeneca’s Alderley Edge campus. It is a village in its own right – though much more futuristic than the picturesque Cheshire communities flanking it.

AstraZeneca spends ÂŁ750 million a year in the UK on the discovery and development of new drugs, and a large chunk of that happens here, says Chris Doherty, one of the vice-presidents of research and development. The main focus is on medicines to combat cancer.

There are new players, too. The National Biomanufacturing Centre, close to Liverpool’s John Lennon Airport, was set up to help small biotech firms with one of the more expensive and complex parts of development: synthesising drugs. The company that runs the centre, Eden Biodesign, has tripled its workforce to 50 people over the past year. The north-west’s biotech industry has grown significantly in the past decade, says Crawford Brown, Eden Biodesign’s CEO, who moved from southern England in the mid-1990s. “Then there was little sign of strength in biotech start-ups in the north-west. Today several of the best-funded and most dynamic biotechs in the UK are located here,” he says.

“24 minutes – Average commute in north-west”

That’s down to a widespread change in attitude, says Linda Magee, biotech director at Bionow, the north-west biotech industry association. “There’s a real desire to succeed. We’re aware of the need to do research that is world class rather than parochial.”

“42 minutes – Average commute in London”

And what of life after work? “The area offers incredible diversity,” says George Baxter, head of science and innovation at the Northwest Regional Development Agency. “You have major cities, Cheshire countryside, coast, mountains, the scenery of the Lake District – and the lifestyles that go with them.” So start enjoying those silver linings.

However, these conversations also provided a reminder that there are feelings, encounters and moments that the majority of postgrad students will almost definitely share. Some things are specific to a PhD, others are just as common during a master’s or other course after your degree. So from the moment you decide to commit to further study through to life afterwards, here’s what to expect as a postgrad.

The first discovery is a deep-rooted passion for your subject

You may have kept it hidden from your friends so far, for fear of losing a hard-earned “slacker” reputation. You may even have struggled to come to terms with it yourself. But the main thing any undergraduate realises when they decide to commit to a PhD or master’s is just how much they love their discipline.

Discovering this is good news, of course: a consuming interest in your subject is probably the most important ingredient for success, says Mike Owen, head of the Biopharmaceuticals Centre of Excellence for Drug Discovery at GlaxoSmithKline in Stevenage. “You will only negotiate the inevitable low points by complete commitment to your research project.”

However, just like the difference between falling in love and tying the knot, a passion for your subject does not necessarily come at the same time as knowing you want to commit to years more of study.

Do not worry if you are not completely confident that you are making the right decision – sometimes that doesn’t come until later. For instance, Martin Rees, president of the Royal Society, says he was not sure of his choice until a year into his PhD (see “What I’ve learned…”).

Success as an undergraduate does not guarantee success later

Clearly, anyone considering staying on at university and pursuing an academic career should have shown achievement as an undergraduate and demonstrated potential, but don’t assume you need to have been the top of your class nor be expecting a first. Nor will you necessarily need to have been capable across every area – witness space scientist Colin Pillinger’s description of his chemistry experiments (see “What I’ve learned…”).

Conversely, success as an undergraduate does not necessarily transfer to the next level, especially to a PhD. Moving from the confines of undergrad exercises with known solutions to the potentially unbounded problems you will explore in a doctorate requires motivation, curiosity, creativity, imagination and stubbornness. If your undergraduate course has an option to do a project or dissertation module, grasp the opportunity with both hands. This is your best chance to get a feel for postgrad life.

This kind of experience can often prove a revelation. “Science was something I had fallen into,” says Nancy Rothwell, vice-president of research at the University of Manchester. “But my final-year project suddenly made science seem like the most exciting thing imaginable, so a PhD was then obvious. I haven’t changed that view since.”

Lecturers can help enormously

Many students who go on to do a master’s or PhD do so thanks to a gatekeeper – a lecturer or professor who recognises their potential and helps set them on their journey. If there is somebody in your department encouraging you, then take it as definite sign that you might be well suited.

Do not be shy of looking beyond your department for advice. If you are enjoying a fascinating part of your subject that is beyond the scope of your lectures, why not take physicist David Deutsch’s advice (page 60) and get in touch with the relevant researcher at another university?

Further down the line, choose your supervisor carefully: that relationship is the keystone of postgrad study – particularly in PhDs. Ask yourself if you would want a hands-on supervisor who you see most days, or whether you would prefer one who communicates monthly via Post-it notes in your pigeon-hole? Try to visit a department before applying, and ask students what it’s like working for the various professors.

“Choose your supervisor wisely: that relationship is the keystone of postgraduate life”

The step up is large

In the first few weeks of postgrad life, it is easy to feel somewhat awestruck by your supervisor and your peers. Whether you are doing a master’s or a PhD, you are likely to share an office with people working on completely different things to you. Put bluntly, there will be a lot of people around you who know a lot of stuff you do not. Nodding and smiling can be a useful skill.

A year’s worth of fretting before comprehending what your supervisor is talking about is not uncommon. In the same way that road directions are often sketchier from people who know the route, your supervisor’s familiarity with their own field can mean they take your understanding of it for granted.

“It was a massive shock, being thrown into the deep end of research,” says Marcus Du Sautoy, professor of mathematics at the University of Oxford. “I remember being completely flummoxed by the onslaught of foreign words in the academic papers my supervisor gave me to read. But I began to learn a new style of reading, which pulled out the big story of the paper without trying to understand all the details.”

“I remember being completely flummoxed by the onslaught of foreign words”

Listen carefully, note everything down and think about it in your own time. Sometimes a comment from your supervisor that confused you can come into its own months later. Your peers will be able to help you settle in, and will soon prove their worth by offering an alternative perspective on your work – something which makes all the difference when you get stuck.

It is important to be ambitious but also realistic. “Many students expect to be doing fundamental research from day one, and in most cases this is unrealistic,” says Wendy Hall, professor of computer science at the University of Southampton. “You have a lot to learn and will spend considerable time reading about what others are doing.”

Funding yourself has got a bit easier

PhD students can now expect significantly more help with finances compared to a decade ago. This year, PhD students will receive a stipend of £12,300. Funding can be trickier if you do a master’s, but teaching, marking, demonstrating and exam invigilation all now offer potential extra sources of money.

Not everything goes to plan

It is easy to reach the second year of a research-based postgraduate placement and feel you have not achieved much. In a PhD, this is when you start to make your research your own. Starting to apply your knowledge to proper, independent research can be a shock. By its nature, it leads you down blind alleys, and your supervisor can only help so much.

Expect to have setbacks and failures. Everybody struggles – if all your experiments worked first time, then your supervisor would more than likely become suspicious.

Some things will be out of your control and you will need to make the best of it. It could be that your supervisor goes on sabbatical for a chunk of your PhD – something which happened to Rothwell. “At the time I thought it was a real disadvantage, but it made me stand on my own two feet,” she recalls.

Interruptions can be positive

Time away from your desk can provide the inspiration that makes the difference between a breakthrough and banging your head against the wall. Teaching and other departmental responsibilities mean that you do something positive every week, even when your research does not go to plan. Not only is communicating ideas an important skill to have, teaching refreshes your broader understanding of your subject.

Your results are no good unless others believe them

You will reach a stage where you understand the intricate details of what you are doing more than your supervisor does. He or she will still be there to give you general guidance but, more importantly, to check your results. You need to be as sure as possible that these are correct. This is one of the single most important lessons to learn as a postgraduate, and this kind of rigour will also be central to your integrity as a scientist, which makes it highly valued in the job market.

Public speaking is not so bad

Somewhere along the way, you will probably attend academic conferences. This is a chance to meet some of the top people in the field and get some fresh perspectives on your work.

Seeing what others are working on can be invaluable for triggering thoughts about your own research. Hearing about the hurdles other research students have faced can also be quite reassuring.

If you do not like talking in public, then this is the time to sort it out. Speaking about something you are passionate about can do wonders for the nerves. Writing a talk forces you to think about the structure and main messages of your thesis, which of course will help you write and present the thing later on.

“You can do the most amazing experiments or make the most astounding observations, but if you fail to communicate them, you might as well never have done the work,” says Mike Benton, professor of palaeontology at the University of Bristol.

In a PhD, one of the final hurdles is an oral defence of your thesis – or viva – to two experts in the field. It may be a two to three-hour grilling but, on the bright side, it is also a rare opportunity to talk non-stop about your research to people who will actually listen.

You pick up other useful life skills too

Time in academia beyond your degree will expand your abilities in ways few other things can. “Getting that final degree changed my life and opened opportunities for me in ways I surely still don’t understand,” says Paul Nahin, professor emeritus at the University of New Hampshire in Durham. Aside from your technical knowledge, you will learn organisation, prioritisation, critical thinking and self-motivation.

The idea that an extra piece of paper will make you unemployable or overqualified outside academia is a fallacy. In fact, as few as one-quarter of UK science PhD students stay in academia, according to figures from the UK GRAD programme, which aims to improve the career chances of postgraduate researchers.

At the same time, a postgraduate qualification is no guarantee of a job in academia. “The career ladder is tough, but it has to be,” says Benton. As a researcher you are creating knowledge, not following a well-beaten track, so only the most creative and persistent will do.”

Whatever happens, it will be time well spent

Towards the end, things unexpectedly start to fall into place and make sense. After months of toiling away on a handful of very specific problems, you come up for air and see where your work fits into the scientific endeavour. Your thesis becomes the story of a period of your life. Step back and you will see you have achieved a lot.

As long as you are interested in the subject, a postgraduate degree will be hard work but ultimately gratifying. “The rewards are fantastic for those who work hard and who have a real spark of originality,” says Benton. “The chance to challenge received wisdom and to find something new no one has realised before are unbeatable.”

And if you later find yourself picking your completed thesis off the shelf and caressing it like a small pet, do not worry – this is entirely normal behaviour.